Crystal healing. Exorcism. Homeopathy. Ghost hunting. Ley lines. Ufology. The list of pseudoscientific practices and belief systems is long, and is likely to keep growing. The word pseudoscience, which is a combination of the Greek word pseudo, meaning false, and the English word science, meaning knowledge, is a term used to denote a wide range of statements, beliefs and practices considered to be incompatible with established scientific methods. A defining characteristic of pseudosciences is that its adherents believe and claim that their theories and statements are actually scientific and based on facts, and thus that they should be taken as justifiably true. In other words, pseudosciences use appeals to science in order to legitimate their claims and make them appear logical and rational. However, the supposedly scientific method used within many pseudosciences is severely flawed, because it is usually not open to evaluation by others. Furthermore, it often includes exaggerated statements, relies on confirmation bias rather than rigorous attempts at refutation, and lacks proper practices in the development of hypotheses. Pseudosciences are also recognisable through their insistent belief in hypotheses which have repeatedly been demonstrated as false. Examples include the belief that climate change is not real, that vaccines cause autism and that wind turbines cause illness (“wind turbine syndrome”). While the belief in some pseudosciences is largely harmless, others can cause severe damage, and even be fatal, such as the belief in some types of alternative medicine as a substitute for standard cancer treatments. Refutation of such beliefs is therefore essential in order to prevent harmful outcomes.
While there is consensus within the scientific community about the importance of using established methods to conduct research, the term pseudoscience has been criticised by some, who argue that a distinction between science and non-science is neither possible nor desirable. Others have criticised the term on the basis that it is often simply used to dismiss any statements one does not agree with. On the other hand, many pseudosciences operate in a cult-like manner, where those who refute these beliefs are regarded as enemies, and mainstream sciences are singled out as being mere conspiracy theories. Still, there has always been a link between science and pseudoscience, and many practices that we now regard as pseudoscience have been applied as science in the past, to the detriment of millions of people's lives. The main example of this is scientific racism, which advanced the idea of humans being divided into a number of different races with some being superior/inferior to others. Among other things, it was used to justify slavery in the United States, the system of apartheid in South Africa and the eugenics enforced by Nazi Germany, which shows just how dangerous certain forms of pseudoscience can be.
Now that we have become familiar with what the term means, it is time to take a closer look at four different belief systems commonly regarded to be pseudoscientific.
Let us start with something we are probably all familiar with: astrology. Known to many people through sun signs and horoscopes, at its core, astrology is a system of beliefs that posits that the movements of celestial objects such as stars and planets affect events taking place on earth, and as such, can be used to predict what will happen in the future. The practice of astrology dates back to ancient times, existing in various forms within many cultures around the world. A common element is the use of zodiacs, which for example includes twelve signs in both the Chinese and contemporary Western versions. Western practices of astrology often rely on horoscopes, also known as birth charts, which are thought to explain people's personalities and are used to foretell significant events in someone's life. While horoscopes commonly found in newspapers and magazines usually rely only on sun signs, astrologists use birth charts based on the positions of celestial bodies, including the Sun, Moon and planets in our solar system at the time of someone's birth to make their predictions. In addition to the signs, the sky is also divided into twelve so called houses, which, together with the observation of angles between planets, are used to make divinations. Each sign is associated with certain personality traits, and each celestial body and house is thought to have influence on different areas of life, such as health, career and friends.
While the signs within Western practice are based on constellations, Chinese astrology uses a zodiac with animals, and a system where the sky is divided into three so called enclosures and 28 mansions in twelve “ci” (次). It is closely related to Chinese philosophy, and therefore incorporates concepts such as yin and yang, as well as the so called five phases, which includes the elements of fire, water, metal, wood and earth. As in Western astrology, the zodiac signs are said to correspond with certain personality traits. These are often used in matchmaking, where practitioners consult so called compatibility grids to find suitable matches. While the practice of astrology has survived through history, its application has not been without criticism. Already in ancient times, it was refuted as nonsense by skeptics, who questioned the belief that planetary movements would have any explanatory power when it came to human behaviour. In more recent times, scientific attempts to verify the usefulness of astrology in understanding differences in personality types have never been successful, indicating that it is indeed a form of pseudoscientific belief system.
While practising astrology is largely harmless, as it is primarily used for the purpose of personal guidance or simply as entertainment, the next form of pseudoscience, conversion therapy, can cause permanent damage to individuals' mental health. As the name suggests, the purpose of conversion therapy is to change lesbian, gay and bisexual people's sexual orientation so that they instead become heterosexual. Using numerous harmful techniques, both physical and psychological, practitioners of conversion therapy aim to make people believe that there is something wrong with their sexual orientation, and that it is thus a problem that needs to be “fixed”. Extremely violent methods used in the past include so called ice pick lobotomy, which was conducted in the US in the 1940s and 50s, causing severe brain damage and leaving those subjected to it disabled for the rest of their lives. Other techniques involved castration and hormone treatments, as well as aversive treatments, where people were subjected to electric shocks or nausea-inducing drugs while being showed “homoerotic stimuli” to facilitate “reconditioning”.
Modern forms of conversion therapy, as commonly practiced in the US, often involve the use of counselling, visualisation techniques, psychoanalytic therapy as well as spiritual interventions including prayer and “support groups”. Conversion therapy is often associated with religion, particularly Christianity, and has been continuously advocated by different Christian associations, despite consensus within the scientific community of the harms that it can cause. While the uselessness and harmful effects of conversion therapy have been repeatedly asserted, there is only a small number of countries which have actually banned the practice. This can in part be explained by the fact that the practice is not widespread, but also that in some countries, such as Malaysia, conversion therapy is tolerated, and even encouraged, by the state. Rooted in blatant homophobia, conversion therapy is a prime example of a pseudoscientific practice that not only causes significant damage to those subjected to it, but also furthers stigmatisation of an already marginalised group of people.
Moving on from the heavy topic of conversion therapy, we have now arrived at the third pseudoscientific belief system, namely feng shui (风水). If you are interested in interior design, the term, which literally means “wind-water” in Chinese, is likely not unfamiliar to you. Denoting a practice that claims to use energy forces to harmonise individuals with their surroundings, feng shui, originating in ancient China, is one of the five arts of Chinese metaphysics. With a particular focus on architecture, feng shui deals with the concept of qi (气, literal meaning: air), which is considered to be a movable life force that flows around and binds humanity, earth and the universe together. The magnetic compass, which was possibly invented for the purpose of practising feng shui, is an essential component, as are the bagua (八卦), also known as the eight trigrams, which are symbols that are supposed to represent the fundamental principles of reality. In ancient times, the purpose of practising feng shui was to find ideal spots to construct buildings and graveyards, making sure that they were well aligned with the flow of qi.
In contemporary times, this belief system has often been studied by landscape ecologists, environmental scientists and architects, and employed by geographers, who have been able to locate historical sites in Canada and the US through a consideration of similar practises used by Native Americans. While still popular in China, the concept has since moved abroad, and also become part of a market in the West, in which entrepreneurs can earn large amounts of money by acting as feng shui experts, providing rich clients with advice on how to construct their mansions (location, floor plan, door and window placements...) to promote the flow of qi. For many people, such a practice is simply not possible nor affordable. To this end, more budget friendly versions have emerged, encouraging believers to purchase auspicious objects, such as small Money God statues, and place these at different locations in the house to achieve a harmonious home. While it is certainly true that there are magnetic and other forces (such as gravitation) on earth, there is no evidence that these actually have an impact on wellbeing, or that they can be manipulated in order to promote a positive atmosphere or emotions.
After considering these three very different pseudoscientific belief systems, we have arrived at the last one: the polygraph, more commonly known as a lie detector. Used as an interrogation tool in some countries, a polygraph is a device that measures physiological indicators, including pulse, blood pressure, respiration and skin conductivity while someone answers a series of questions. Despite the scientific conclusion that lying does not produce certain measurable reactions, the polygraph continues to be used as a way of determining whether someone is telling the truth. While several measures have been developed to supposedly increase reliability of such devices, such as the introduction of a so called control question (also known as the probable lie test), which is used as a baseline for considering subsequent reactions, polygraphs have not been found to produce trustworthy results. Furthermore, research has shown that the use of the probable lie test creates bias against innocent subjects, calling the validity and ethics of the practice into question. Additionally, two main types of countermeasures, known as general state and specific point, designed to fool the polygraph, have been successfully employed, which shows that it is possible to manipulate its results.
While lie detectors might be most commonly associated with police investigations, they are more often used in a number of other contexts, including as part of security screenings for certain jobs. In the US, where the use of the polygraph is most prevalent, lie detection is part of a sizeable industry where firms and individuals specialised in administering these tests can earn large amounts of money by providing their services to private businesses. Polygraphs are sometimes also advertised as “infidelity tests”, designed to determine whether a partner suspected of cheating is indeed being unfaithful. Due to the notorious impreciseness of these tests, they are usually not considered to be admissible as evidence in courts. Still, their use could easily have adverse consequences, which is why caution must be exercised when engaging in this pseudoscientific practice.
As we come to the end of this article, you have hopefully learned a bit more about what pseudosciences are and how different these practices can be. Are there any pseudoscientific practices you would be interesting in reading more about? If so, feel free to comment below! Who knows, maybe there will be a part two of this article in the future!
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